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Date: April 29, 2024 Mon
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Results for education and crime
15 results foundAuthor: Machin, Stephen Title: The Crime Reducing Effect of Education Summary: This paper presents evidence on empirical connections between crime and education, using various data sources from Britain. A robust finding is that criminal activity is negatively associated with higher levels of education. However, it is essential to ensure that the direction of causation flows from education to crime. Therefore, the study identifies the effect of education on participation in criminal activity using changes in compulsory school leaving age laws over time to account for the endogeneity of education. In this causal approach, for property crimes, the negative crime-education relationship remains strong and significant. The implications of these findings are unambigous and clear. They show that improving education can yield significant social benefits and can be a key policy tool in the drive to reduce crime. Details: Bonn, Germany: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), 2010. 35p. Source: Internet Resource; IZA Discussion Paper No. 5000 Year: 2010 Country: United Kingdom URL: Shelf Number: 118788 Keywords: EducationEducation and Crime |
Author: Bjerk, David Title: Re‐examining the Impact of Dropping out on Criminal and Labor Outcomes in Early Adulthood Summary: This paper shows that while high school dropouts fare far worse on average than otherwise similar high school completers in early adulthood outcomes such as success in the labor market and future criminal activity, there are important differences within this group of dropouts. Notably, those who feel “pulled” out of school (i.e, they say they dropped out of school to work or take care of family) do similarly with respect to labor market and criminal outcomes in their early twenties to individuals with similar predropout characteristics who complete high school. It is only those who feel they are more “pushed” out of school (i.e, they say they drop out for other reasons including expulsion, poor grades, moving, and not liking school) who do substantially worse than otherwise similar high school completers. These results suggest that any detrimental impacts from dropping out of school arise primarily when the drop out does not have a plan for how to use his time after dropping out. Details: Ann Arbor, MI: National Poverty Center, 2011. 35p. Source: Internet Resource: National Poverty Center Working Paper Series #11 – 27: Accessed October 4, 2011 at: http://npc.umich.edu/publications/u/2011-27-NPC-Working-Paper.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://npc.umich.edu/publications/u/2011-27-NPC-Working-Paper.pdf Shelf Number: 122981 Keywords: Education and CrimeExploymentHighschool Dropouts |
Author: Mocan, Naci H. Title: Skill-biased Technological Change, Earnings of Unskilled Workers, and Crime Summary: This paper investigates the impact of unskilled (non-college educated) workers’ earnings on crime. Following the literature on wage inequality and skill-biased technological change, we employ CPS data to create state-year as well as state-year-and (broad) industry specific measures of skill-biased technological change, which are then used as instruments for unskilled workers’ earnings in crime regressions. Regressions that employ state panels reveal that technology-induced variations in unskilled workers’ earnings impact property crime with an elasticity of -1.0, but that wages have no impact on violent crime. Estimating structural crime equations using micro panel data from NLSY97 and instrumenting real wages of young workers with state-year-industry specific technology shocks yields elasticities that are in the neighborhood of -1.7 for most types of property crime. In both data sets there is evidence for asymmetric impact of unskilled workers’ earnings on crime. A decline in earnings has a larger effect on crime in comparison to an increase in earnings by the same absolute value. Details: Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2011. 47p. Source: Internet Resource: NBER Working Paper Series; Working Paper 17605: Accessed November 23, 2011 at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17605 Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://www.nber.org/papers/w17605 Shelf Number: 123442 Keywords: Economics and CrimeEducation and CrimeEmployment and Crime |
Author: McCarger, Laura Title: Invisible Students: The Role of Alternative and Adult Education in the Connecticut School-to-Prison Pipeline Summary: There are thousands of young people across the state of Connecticut pursuing their education outside of traditional high schools. Some have left high school by choice; others have been counseled, coerced, or otherwise forced to leave. This report examines the systematic removal of struggling and vulnerable students from traditional high school. It finds that furtive practices employed by school districts across the state flout the due process and procedural protections promised to students by state law and, in the worst instances, effectually eradicate students’ constitutionally granted right to education. Nationwide, nearly 1.2 million teens – more than one third of all high school students – drop out of high school every year. Until recently, this devastating reality remained one of our nation’s best-kept secrets. Recent efforts on the part of students, parents, activists, advocates and education reformers across the country have led states to report graduation and dropout rates more accurately and to develop new pathways to help youth on the margins get back on track to graduation. While this progress is laudable, there remains another troubling truth we must confront: students rarely “drop out” of school simply because they do not desire to finish; in fact, for many students who stop short of finishing, leaving high school is not really a choice at all. A growing body of research, informed by a decade’s worth of analysis of what has come to known as the school-to-prison pipeline, explores and documents how many of our nation’s most vulnerable and struggling students do not chose to leave school, but are in effect pushed out. The school-to-prison pipeline refers to laws, policies and practices that remove students from places of learning and place them on a path towards prison. There are actually two pipelines. One is overt and well documented. A plethora of research, both statewide and nationally, has documented how factors such as zero tolerance school discipline; suspensions and expulsions; school-based arrests; increasingly prison-like school environments; criminalization of everyday student behaviors; pressures created by high stakes tests; and budgets that prioritize incarceration over education, work in concert to place many of our struggling students on a conveyer belt into the justice system. There is also a “secret pipeline” which has not received adequate attention nor been thoroughly investigated. The secret pipeline refers to the mechanisms and strategies employed by school districts to remove students who present academic and behavioral challenges while circumventing due process and skirting accountability and responsibility for the educational outcomes of those students. Once funneled into this secret pipeline, some students never return to school. Those that attempt to finish often find themselves in alternative or adult education programs which are often ill equipped to meet students’ needs, yield startlingly low completion rates, and risk accelerating rather than curbing the flow of young people into the justice system. Gaps and loopholes in data collection and reporting mechanisms sustain the secret pipeline by rendering the experiences and outcomes of these students largely invisible. Using Connecticut as a case study, this report explores the pressures propelling the secret pipeline, documents the “de facto discipline” practices that place students on it, examines the educational experiences and outcomes of students that land in alternative and adult education programs, and advances recommendations for reform. Details: Connecticut: A Better Way Foundation; Connecticut Pushout Research and Organizing Project, 2011. 88p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed February 12, 2012 at http://www.hartfordinfo.org/issues/wsd/Education/InvisibleStudents.pdf Year: 2011 Country: United States URL: http://www.hartfordinfo.org/issues/wsd/Education/InvisibleStudents.pdf Shelf Number: 124109 Keywords: Due ProcessEducation (Connecticut)Education and CrimeJuvenile Offenders |
Author: Cook, Philip J. Title: Birthdays, Schooling, and Crime: New Evidence on the Dropout-Crime Nexus Summary: Based on administrative data for five cohorts of public school children in North Carolina, we demonstrate that those born just after the cut date for starting school are likely to outperform those born just before in reading and math in middle school, and are less likely to be involved in juvenile delinquency. On the other hand, those born after the cut date are more likely to drop out of high school before graduation and commit a felony offense by age 19. We also present suggestive evidence that the higher dropout rate is due to the fact that youths born after the cut date have longer exposure to the legal possibility of dropping out. The “crime” and “dropout” differences are strong but somewhat muted by the fact that youths born just before the cut date are substantially more likely to be held back in school. We document considerable heterogeneity in educational and criminal outcomes by sex, race and other indicators of socioeconomic disadvantage. Details: Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2013. 58p. Source: Internet Resource: NBER Working Paper Series; Working Paper 18791: Accessed February 12, 2013 at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w18791 Year: 2013 Country: United States URL: http://www.nber.org/papers/w18791 Shelf Number: 127584 Keywords: Education and CrimeSchool DropoutsSocioeconomic Status |
Author: Brugård, Kaja Høiseth Title: Student Performance and Imprisonment Summary: This paper studies the relationship between education and crime. We exploit Norwegian register data on skills at the end of compulsory education at age 16, high school attainment, and detailed imprisonment data. We find that skills, as measured by GPA, have a strong diminishing effect on imprisonment. The result is robust to a range of model specifications, including school and neighborhood fixed effects and IV-estimations using the result from the external exit examination as an instrument for skills. The relationship is nonlinear and driven by individuals with skills below average. Even though there is a strong relationship between GPA and high school attainment, this does not seem to be the main mechanism for the effect of GPA on imprisonment. This result is also robust to a range of model specifications. Details: Trondheim, Norway: Department of Economics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2012. 36p. Source: Internet Resource: Working Paper Series, No. 9/2012: Accessed February 13, 2013 at: http://www.svt.ntnu.no/iso/wp/2012/9_studentperformance_KHB_TF.pdf Year: 2012 Country: Norway URL: http://www.svt.ntnu.no/iso/wp/2012/9_studentperformance_KHB_TF.pdf Shelf Number: 127599 Keywords: Education and CrimeImprisonmentStudent Achievement |
Author: Ludwig, Jens Title: Preventing Youth Violence and Dropout: A Randomized Field Experiment Summary: Improving the long-term life outcomes of disadvantaged youth remains a top policy priority in the United States, although identifying successful interventions for adolescents – particularly males – has proven challenging. This paper reports results from a large randomized controlled trial of an intervention for disadvantaged male youth grades 7-10 from high-crime Chicago neighborhoods. The intervention was delivered by two local non-profits and included regular interactions with a pro-social adult, after-school programming, and – perhaps the most novel ingredient – in-school programming designed to reduce common judgment and decision-making problems related to automatic behavior and biased beliefs, or what psychologists call cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). We randomly assigned 2,740 youth to programming or to a control group; about half those offered programming participated, with the average participant attending 13 sessions. Program participation reduced violent-crime arrests during the program year by 8.1 per 100 youth (a 44 percent reduction). It also generated sustained gains in schooling outcomes equal to 0.14 standard deviations during the program year and 0.19 standard deviations during the follow-up year, which we estimate could lead to higher graduation rates of 3-10 percentage points (7-22 percent). Depending on how one monetizes the social costs of crime, the benefit-cost ratio may be as high as 30:1 from reductions in criminal activity alone. Details: Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2013. 81p. Source: Internet Resoruce: NBER Working Paper 19014: Accessed May 9, 2013 at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w19014 Year: 2013 Country: United States URL: http://www.nber.org/papers/w19014 Shelf Number: 128689 Keywords: At-risk YouthCost-Benefit AnalysisDelinquency Prevention (U.S.)Education and CrimeSchool AttendanceSchool Dropouts |
Author: Cano-Urbina, Javier Title: The Effect of Education and School Quality on Female Crime Summary: This paper estimates the effects of educational attainment and school quality on crime among American women. Using changes in compulsory schooling laws as instruments, we estimate significant effects of schooling attainment on the probability of incarceration using Census data from 1960-1980. Using data from the 1960-90 Uniform Crime Reports, we also estimate that increases in average schooling levels reduce arrest rates for violent and property crime but not white collar crime. The estimated reductions in crime for women are smaller in magnitude than comparable estimates for men; however, the effects for women are larger in percentage terms (relative to baseline crime rates). Our results suggest small and mixed direct effects of school quality (as measured by pupil-teacher ratios, term length, and teacher salaries) on incarceration and arrests. Finally, we show that the effects of education on crime for women is unlikely to be due to changes in labor market opportunities and may be more related to changes in marital opportunities and family formation. Details: London, ONT: Department of Economics, Social Science Centre, Western University Source: Internet Resource: Centre for Human Capital and Productivity (CHCP) Working Paper Series No. 2016-3: Accessed April 27, 2016 at: http://economics.uwo.ca/chcp/workingpapers_docs/wp2016/CanoUrbina_Lochner03.pdf Year: 2016 Country: United States URL: http://economics.uwo.ca/chcp/workingpapers_docs/wp2016/CanoUrbina_Lochner03.pdf Shelf Number: 138828 Keywords: Education and CrimeFemale Offenders |
Author: Diaz, Juan Title: The Impact of Grade Retention on Juvenile Crime Summary: Using detailed administrative and individual data on schooling and crime records from Chile, we estimate the effect of grade retention between 4th and 8th grade on juvenile crime. We take advantage of a rule which specifies that students who fail more than one subject must repeat the year. We present two empirical strategies to address the strong evidence that the forcing variable is - locally - manipulated. First, we follow Barreca, Guldi, Lindo, and Waddell (2011) to implement a donuthole fuzzy regression discontinuity design (FRD). Second, we extend the approach developed by Keele, Titiunik, and Zubizarreta (2015) to implement a method that combines matching with FRD. These two methodologies deliver similar results and both show no statistically significant effect in a placebo test. According to our results, grade retention increases the probability of juvenile crime by 1.6 percentage point (pp), an increase of 33% (higher for males and low SES students). We also find that grade retention increases the probability of dropping out by 1.5pp. Regarding mechanisms, our findings suggest that the effect of grade retention on crime does not only operate through its effect on dropping out and that the effect of grade retention on crime is worsened when students switch school right after failing the grade. Details: Santiago: University of Chile, Department of Economics, 2016. 37p. Source: Internet Resource: Serie Documentos de Trabajo, No. 429: Accessed October 12, 2016 at: http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/140504/The-Impact-of-Grade.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Year: 2016 Country: Chile URL: http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/140504/The-Impact-of-Grade.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Shelf Number: 145440 Keywords: Education and CrimeJuvenile DelinquencyJuvenile DelinquentsJuvenile OffendersSchool Drop-Outs |
Author: Hawes, Janelle M. Title: Within-Individual Differences in Offending from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A Modified Theoretical Approach to Understanding Academic Achievement and Delinquency Summary: Motivated by General Strain Theory (GST), the project examines school strains and their effects on offending from adolescence to young adulthood. The project develops an extensive GST model, testing multiple measures of school strain (controlling for strains from multiple domains), coping mechanisms, and negative emotionality. I expand the traditional GST framework by adding measures of subjective meaning to the interpretation of strain. While the concept of subjective meaning has been suggested previously (Agnew, 1992; Cohen, 1955), I draw on psychological theories and suggestions by Agnew (1992) about understanding the perception of strain, to address critiques that the individual context in which the strain is experienced is not accounted for in existing empirical work on school strain and delinquency (Sander, Sharkey, Fisher, Bates, and Herren, 2011). To that end, the project uses three waves of data from The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), which followed a cohort of students into adulthood. This study contributes to scholarship by examining gender differences in the relationship between school strains and offending over time, comparing multiple measures of school strain, and including measures of subjective meaning. Linear mixedeffects modeling is used to estimate relationships between school strain and offending, for male and female subsamples in order to identify gender differences in the ways school strains, subjective meaning, other strains, coping mechanisms, and negative emotionality affect offending. I utilize a GST framework to explain the results from the analysis. Findings revealed that while some school strains were positively related to offending trajectories, the subjective meaning of those strains made a difference in their consequences, either increasing or decreasing levels of offending, even when controlling for multiple forms of strain. Further, while some coping skills and mechanisms decreased the estimated level of offending trajectory, religiosity unexpectedly increased the estimated level of offending in females. The most significant finding from this study was the strong impact of school strains and the subjective meaning of strain on the level of offending over time. Details: Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University, 2016. 198p. Source: Internet Resource: Dissertation: Accessed October 14, 2016 at; https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=bgsu1460183708&disposition=inline Year: 2016 Country: United States URL: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=bgsu1460183708&disposition=inline Shelf Number: 144802 Keywords: Criminal TrajectoriesEducation and Crime |
Author: Campaniello, Nadia Title: Returns to Education and Experience in Criminal Organizations: Evidence from the Italian-American Mafia Summary: Is there any return to education in criminal activities? This is the first paper that investigates whether education has not only a positive impact on legitimate, but also on illegitimate activities. We use as a case study one of the longest running criminal corporations in history: the Italian-American mafia. Its most successful members have been capable businessmen, orchestrating crimes that require abilities that might be learned at school: extracting the optimal rent when setting up a racket, weighting interests against default risk when starting a loan sharking business or organising supply chains, logistics and distribution when setting up a drug dealing system. We address this question by comparing mobsters with their closest (non-mobster) neighbors using United States Census data in 1940. We document that mobsters have one year less education than their neighbors on average. None of the specifications presented identified any significant difference in the returns to education between these two groups. Private returns to education exist also in the illegal activities characterised by a certain degree of complexity as in the case of organized crime in mid-twentieth century United States. Details: Essex, UK: University of Essex, Department of Economics, 2015. 34p. Source: Internet Resource: Working Paper No. 763: Accessed October 17, 2016 at: http://repository.essex.ac.uk/13795/1/dp763.pdf Year: 2015 Country: United States URL: http://repository.essex.ac.uk/13795/1/dp763.pdf Shelf Number: 145075 Keywords: Economics and CrimeEducation and CrimeMafiaOrganized Crime |
Author: Beatton, Tony Title: Larrikin Youth: New Evidence on Crime and Schooling Summary: This paper reports new evidence on the causal link between education and male youth crime using individual level state-wide administrative data for Queensland, Australia. Enactment of the Earning or Learning education reform of 2006, with a mandatory increase in minimum school leaving age, is used to identify a causal impact of schooling on male youth crime. The richness of the matched (across agency) individual level panel data enables the analysis to shed significant light on the extent to which the causal impact reflects incapacitation, or whether more schooling acts to reduce crime after youths have left compulsory schooling. The empirical analysis uncovers a significant incapacitation effect, as remaining in school for longer reduces crime whilst in school, but also a sizeable crime reducing impact of education for young men in their late teens and early twenties. We also carry out analysis by major crime type and differentiate between single and multiple offending behaviour. Crime reduction effects are concentrated in property crime and single crime incidence, rather than altering the behaviour of the recalcitrant persistent offender. Details: London: London School of Economics and Political Science, Centre for Economic Performance, 2016. 38p. Source: Internet Resource: CEP Discussion Paper No 1456 : Accessed February 13, 2017 at: http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1456.pd Year: 2016 Country: Australia URL: http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1456.pd Shelf Number: 145124 Keywords: Education and CrimeJuvenile Offenders |
Author: Dennison, Christopher R. Title: Educational Mobility and Crime Throughout the Life Course Summary: A central question in criminology is the degree to which adult transitions are sources of stability or change throughout the life course. Transitions in the form of marriage and employment are said to represent turning points for those most prone for a life course of persistent offending, as such experiences 'knife off' a criminal past. Few studies, however, have considered college completion as an adult transition capable of redirecting one's criminal trajectory. Moreover, research largely assumes that any attainment represents a positive turning point, but whether transitions like educational attainment really are positive depends on how these resources compare to prior generations, such as those of one's parents. The study of social mobility broadens our understanding of socioeconomic attainments by encompassing continuity and change within the life course, as certain achievements may be indicative of stability while others may represent a change - either positive or negative. For instance, obtaining a high school diploma may symbolize a positive turning point for those who grew up in poverty, while similar achievements for those from a higher social class may reflect a loss in social status if it is not followed by further educational attainment. Drawing on theories of social mobility, strain, and relative deprivation, I analyze the relationship between educational mobility and crime using data from The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). First, I examine the relationship between educational mobility (i.e., one's own achieved education in relation to parents' attainment) and various types of crime (i.e., instrumental crime, violent crime, and illegal drug use). Next, I investigate how gender and race/ethnicity moderate the association between educational mobility and crime. Finally, I assess the concern of selection into educational mobility pathways via propensity score analyses, with the purpose of accounting for the confounding bias that may explain the alleged educational mobility and crime association. Results show that upward and downward intergenerational mobility are associated with decreases and increases in instrumental crime, violent crime, and illegal drug use, respectively. Effects are slightly attenuated in size after controlling for occupational and familial transitions in adulthood, as well as financial stressors and social psychological measures. Moreover, downward educational mobility is associated with greater increases in crime for females compared to males, and upward mobility results in greater reductions in crime for blacks and native-born Hispanics. Finally, results show that overall patterns of intergenerational mobility are robust when incorporating a series of propensity score techniques that account for confounding bias. In total, this dissertation contributes to the long speculated socioeconomic status and crime connection by integrating social mobility and education into criminological research as meaningful sources of change in the life course. Details: Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University, 2017. 158p. Source: Internet Resource: Dissertation: Accessed May 9, 2018 at: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?0::NO:10:P10_ACCESSION_NUM:bgsu149891240784971 Year: 2017 Country: United States URL: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?0::NO:10:P10_ACCESSION_NUM:bgsu149891240784971 Shelf Number: 150118 Keywords: Education and CrimeLife Course CriminologySocial Mobility |
Author: Tesfaye, B. Title: "If youth are given the chance": Effects of education and civic engagement on Somali youth support for political violence. Summary: Understanding and addressing the root causes of conflict to promote long-term stability is a perennial focus of development programs, yet policymakers still struggle to find proven, effective solutions. Underlying this challenge is a dearth of evidence regarding violence-reduction approaches. Though an increasing number of empirical studies have focused on evaluating the impact of development programs on attitudes and behaviors related to violence (including Mercy Corps' research in Somaliland and Afghanistan), questions remain about the relative effectiveness of different types of interventions and about the conditions under which some interventions may or may not succeed in reducing violence. The motivation behind this research study is to help fill these knowledge gaps. In particular, this research seeks to test the impact of two common violence-reduction approaches- education and civic engagement-on youths' level of support for armed violence. By expanding our previous study from Somaliland to examine education, civic engagement, and political violence in South Central Somalia and Puntland, this study also allows us to understand whether the effects of the same education and civic engagement interventions persist across different contexts. Somalia faces many challenges and opportunities when it comes to violence reduction. Though the nation is striving to move beyond decades of unrest and violent conflict and toward stability and broad-based development, the security situation remains tenuous. The two truck bombs that exploded on October 14, 2017, killing more than 500 people in Mogadishu, highlight both how deadly armed opposition groups continue to be and Somalia's continued vulnerability to violence. Armed groups have proven repeatedly how resilient they can be, constantly adapting to new threats- both internal and external-to ensure their own survival. A steady source of resilience for armed opposition groups is a large pool of frustrated youth whom they can recruit and indoctrinate. To promote stability, several youth development programs in Somalia seek to engage vulnerable youth and address their needs, including Mercy Corps' Somali Youth Learners Initiative (SYLI), which focused on increasing access to secondary education and civic engagement opportunities for youth. Evaluating the SYLI program provided an opportunity to better understand if and how improved access to formal secondary education and increased opportunities for civic engagement can reduce young Somalis' support for armed groups and the use of violence to achieve political aims. Details: Washington, DC: Mercy Corps, 2018. 42p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed May 30, 2018 at: https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/If%20Youth%20Are%20Given%20the%20Chance_LR_FINAL.pdf Year: 2018 Country: Somalia URL: https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/If%20Youth%20Are%20Given%20the%20Chance_LR_FINAL.pdf Shelf Number: 150404 Keywords: At-Risk YouthEducation and CrimeInterventionsPolitical ViolenceRadicalizationTerrorismViolence Prevention |
Author: Wise, Jenny Title: Impact of the 'Yes, I Can!" Adult Literacy Campaign on Interactions with the Criminal Justice System Summary: Low levels of literacy and education are often associated with negative interactions with and experiences of the criminal justice system. Low literacy also contributes to the over-representation of Indigenous Australians in the justice system. This paper examines service provider and criminal justice practitioner perspectives of the 'Yes, I Can!' adult literacy campaign. Interviews with 22 workers in regional New South Wales suggest that the majority believe the 'Yes, I Can!' program can potentially improve the type and frequency of interactions between Indigenous Australians and the criminal justice system. Overwhelmingly, participants viewed increasing literacy levels as key in empowering Indigenous Australians and enhancing encounters with criminal justice service providers. Further study and evaluation, including interviewing participants of the 'Yes, I Can!' campaign and community Elders, is of utmost importance. Details: Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology, 2018. 16p. Source: Internet Resource: Accessed December 18, 2018 at: https://aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi562 Year: 2018 Country: Australia URL: https://aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi562 Shelf Number: 154037 Keywords: Education and CrimeIndigenous AustraliansIndigenous PeoplesLiteracy ProgramsLow Literacy |